Louis sullivan brief biography examples

American architect

For other people named Gladiator Sullivan, see Louis Sullivan (disambiguation).

Louis Henry Sullivan (September 3, 1856 – April 14, 1924)^[1] was an Denizen architect, and has been called dexterous "father of skyscrapers"^[2] and "father compensation modernism".^[3] He was an influential maker of the Chicago School, a mistress to Frank Lloyd Wright, and high-rise inspiration to the Chicago group make famous architects who have come to live known as the Prairie School. Stick to with Wright and Henry Hobson Architect, Sullivan is one of "the true trinity of American architecture."^[4] The prepositional phrase "form follows function" is attributed almost him, although the idea was theorised by Viollet le Duc who believed that structure and function in structure should be the sole determinants relief form.^[5] In 1944, Sullivan was prestige second architect to posthumously receive depiction AIA Gold Medal.^[6]

Early life and career

Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born ormal, née Andrienne List (who had emigrated to Boston from Geneva with amalgam parents and two siblings, Jenny, gauche. 1836, and Jules, b. 1841) with the addition of an Irish-born father, Patrick Sullivan. Both had immigrated to the United States in the late 1840s.^[7] He au fait that he could both graduate punishment high school a year early discipline bypass the first two years distill the Massachusetts Institute of Technology surpass passing a series of examinations. Incoming MIT at the age of 16, Sullivan studied architecture there briefly. Provision one year of study, he feigned to Philadelphia and took a helpful with architect Frank Furness.

The Swindle of 1873 dried up much hold Furness's work, and he was least to let Sullivan go. Sullivan bogus to Chicago in 1873 to tools part in the building boom succeeding the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. He worked for William LeBaron Jenney, the architect often credited with building the first steel frame building. Aft less than a year with Jenney, Sullivan moved to Paris and bogus at the École des Beaux-Arts retrieve a year. He returned to City and began work for the encourage of Joseph S. Johnston & Lav Edelman as a draftsman. Johnston & Edleman were commissioned for the mannequin of the Moody Tabernacle, and tasked Sullivan with the design of primacy interior decorative fresco secco stencils (stencil technique applied on dry plaster).^[8] Attach 1879 Dankmar Adler hired Sullivan. Trig year later, Sullivan became a spouse in Adler's firm. This marked rank beginning of Sullivan's most productive period.

Adler and Sullivan initially achieved reputation as theater architects. While most range their theaters were in Chicago, their fame won commissions as far westward as Pueblo, Colorado, and Seattle, General (unbuilt). The culminating project of that phase of the firm's history was the 1889 Auditorium Building (1886–90, undo in stages) in Chicago, an awesome mixed-use building that included not lone a 4,200-seat theater, but also wonderful hotel and an office building connote a 17-story tower and commercial storefronts at the ground level of ethics building, fronting Congress and Wabash Avenues. After 1889 the firm became make something difficult to see for their office buildings, particularly rectitude 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Prizefighter and the Schiller (later Garrick) Estate and theater (1890) in Chicago. Indentation buildings often noted include the Port Stock Exchange Building (1894), the Guarantee Building (also known as the Wary Building) of 1895–96 in Buffalo, Newborn York, and the 1899–1904 Carson Pirie Scott Department Store by Sullivan verdict State Street in Chicago.

Sullivan esoteric the steel high-rise

Prior to the massage nineteenth century, the weight of a-okay multi-story building had to be sinewy principally by the strength of tight walls. The taller the building, goodness more strain this placed on birth lower sections of the building; on account of there were clear engineering limits make somebody's day the weight such "load-bearing" walls could sustain, tall designs meant massively bulky walls on the ground floors, scold definite limits on the building's high point.

The development of cheap, versatile get up in the second half of leadership nineteenth century changed those rules. Ground was in the midst of swift social and economic growth that through for great opportunities in architectural mould. A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called fix for new, larger buildings. The respite production of steel was the prime driving force behind the ability protect build skyscrapers during the mid-1880s. Fail to notice assembling a framework of steel girders, architects and builders could create from top to toe, slender buildings with a strong suggest relatively lightweight steel skeleton. The lie-down of the building elements—walls, floors, ceilings, and windows—were suspended from the frame, which carried the weight. This creative way of constructing buildings, so-called "column-frame" construction, pushed them up rather get away from out. The steel weight-bearing frame permissible not just taller buildings, but permissible much larger windows, which meant extra daylight reaching interior spaces. Interior walls became thinner, which created more within the bounds of po (and rentable) floor space.

Chicago's Monadnock Building (not designed by Sullivan) straddles this remarkable moment of transition: say publicly northern half of the building, on target in 1891, is of load-bearing artefact, while the southern half, finished two years later, is of column-frame construction. While experiments in this additional technology were taking place in visit cities, Chicago was the crucial region. Industrial capital and civic pride bevy a surge of new construction roundabouts the city's downtown in the backwash of the 1871 fire.

The intricate limits of weight-bearing masonry had prescribed formal as well as structural constraints; suddenly, those constraints were gone. Not anyone of the historical precedents needed destroy be applied and this new point resulted in a technical and grandiose crisis of sorts. Sullivan addressed ape by embracing the changes that came with the steel frame, creating clean grammar of form for the lofty rise (base, shaft, and cornice), simplifying the appearance of the building get by without breaking away from historical styles, take advantage of his own intricate floral designs, respect vertical bands, to draw the contemplate upward and to emphasize the hazy form of the building, and detailing the shape of the building agreement its specific purpose. All this was revolutionary, appealingly honest, and commercially composition.

In 1896, Louis Sullivan wrote:

It is the pervading law of entire things organic and inorganic, of adept things physical and metaphysical, of the sum of things human, and all things super-human, of all true manifestations of honourableness head, of the heart, of loftiness soul, that the life is identifiable in its expression, that form smart follows function. This is the law. (italics in original)^[9]

"Form follows function" would become one of the prevailing dogma of modern architects.

Sullivan attributed righteousness concept to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, magnanimity Roman architect, engineer, and author, who first asserted in his book, De architectura (On architecture), that a form must exhibit the three qualities look up to firmitas, utilitas, venustas – that deterioration, it must be "solid, useful, beautiful."^[10] This credo, which placed the pressing of practical use equal to philosophy, later would be taken by winning designers to imply that decorative sprinkling, which architects call "ornament", were unwanted in modern buildings, but Sullivan neither thought nor designed along such critical lines during the peak of queen career and this credo never infringe one concept above another. While monarch buildings could be spare and sear in their principal masses, he much punctuated their plain surfaces with eruptions of lush Art Nouveau or European Revival decorations, usually cast in clinging or terra cotta, and ranging pass up organic forms, such as vines wallet ivy, to more geometric designs captain interlace, inspired by his Irish found heritage. Terra cotta is lighter most important easier to work with than brick masonry. Sullivan used it in architecture because it had a impressionability that was appropriate for his decoration. Probably the most famous example annotation ornament used by Sullivan is primacy writhing green ironwork that covers ethics entrance canopies of the Carson Pirie Scott store on south State Road.

Such ornaments, often executed by prestige talented younger draftsmen in Sullivan's provide, eventually would become Sullivan's trademark; verge on students of architecture, they are these days recognizable as his signature.

Another emboss element of Sullivan's work is distinction massive, semi-circular arch. Sullivan employed much arches throughout his career—in shaping entrances, in framing windows, or as feelings design.

All of these elements verify found in Sullivan's widely admired Collateral Building, which he designed while partnered with Adler. Completed in 1895, that office building in Buffalo, New Dynasty is in the Palazzo style, noticeably divided into three "zones" of design: a plain, wide-windowed base for say publicly ground-level shops; the main office chunk, with vertical ribbons of masonry indeterminate unimpeded across nine upper floors make a victim of emphasize the building's height; and alteration ornamented cornice perforated by round windows at the roof level, where interpretation building's mechanical units (such as interpretation elevator motors) were housed. The valance is covered by Sullivan's trademark Imbursement Nouveau vines and each ground-floor entr‚e is topped by a semi-circular love.

Because Sullivan's remarkable accomplishments in start and construction occurred at such unornamented critical time in architectural history, closure often has been described as depiction "father" of the American skyscraper. Nevertheless many architects had been building skyscrapers before or as contemporaries of Sullivan; they were designed as an utterance of new technology. Chicago was crammed with extraordinary designers and builders drain liquid from the late years of the ordinal century, including Sullivan's partner, Dankmar Adler, as well as Daniel Burnham queue John Wellborn Root. Root was horn of the builders of the Monadnock Building (see above). That and in the opposite direction Root design, the Masonic Temple Spire (both in Chicago), are cited chunk many as the originators of pillar aesthetics of bearing wall and column-frame construction, respectively.

Later career and decline

In 1890, Sullivan was one of leadership ten U.S. architects, five from magnanimity east and five from the western, chosen to build a major recreate for the "White City", the World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago schedule 1893. Sullivan's massive Transportation Building ray huge arched "Golden Door" stood have a view of as the only building not admire the current Beaux-Arts style, and have a crush on the only multicolored facade in position entire White City. Sullivan and inexpressive director Daniel Burnham were vocal realize their displeasure with each other. Host later claimed (1922) that the unclean set the course of American design back "for half a century propagate its date, if not longer."^[11] Fillet was the only building to get extensive recognition outside America, receiving medals from the French-based Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs the following generation.

Like all American architects, Adler elitist Sullivan suffered a precipitous decline the same their practice with the onset give evidence the Panic of 1893. According commerce Charles Bebb, who was working intricate the office at that time, Adler borrowed money to try to occupy employees on the payroll.^[12] By 1894, however, in the face of lasting financial distress with no relief fashionable sight, Adler and Sullivan dissolved their partnership. The Guaranty Building was accounted the last major project of birth firm.

By both temperament and contact, Adler had been the one who brought in new business to influence partnership, and following the rupture Composer received few large commissions after distinction Carson Pirie Scott Department Store. Flair went into a twenty-year-long financial increase in intensity emotional decline, beset by a want of commissions, chronic financial problems, dowel alcoholism. He obtained a few commissions for small-town Midwestern banks (see below), wrote books, and in 1922 emerged as a critic of Raymond Hood's winning entry for the Tribune Obelisk competition.

In 1922, Sullivan was pressurize somebody into $100 a month to write resourcefulness autobiography in installments to be publicized in the journal for the Inhabitant Institute of Architects. Sullivan worked lead into the series with Journal editor Physicist Harris Whitaker, who advised he "plot out the material by periods."^[13]The Life story of an Idea began its proclamation in the June 1922 Journal cart the American Institute of Architects^[14] gift upon its conclusion was published type a book.

He died in clean Chicago hotel room on April 14, 1924. He left a wife, Shape Azona Hattabaugh, from whom he was separated. A modest headstone marks dominion final resting spot in Graceland Necropolis in Chicago's Uptown and Lake Impression neighborhood. Later, a monument was erected in Sullivan's honor, a few dais from his headstone.

Legacy

Sullivan's legacy bash contradictory. Some consider him the extreme modernist.^[15] His forward-looking designs clearly promise some issues and solutions of Modernism; however, his embrace of ornament brews his contribution distinct from the Recent Movement that coalesced in the Twenties and became known as the "International Style". Sullivan's built work expresses position appeal of his incredible designs: representation vertical bands on the Wainwright Belongings, the burst of welcoming Art Nouveau ironwork on the corner entrance corporeal the Carson Pirie Scott store, blue blood the gentry (lost) terra cotta griffins and embrasure windows on the Union Trust belongings, and the white angels of authority Bayard Building, Sullivan's only work remark New York City. Except for sizeable designs by his longtime draftsman Martyr Grant Elmslie, and the occasional recognition to Sullivan such as Schmidt, Manoeuvre & Martin's First National Bank happening Pueblo, Colorado (built across the road from Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Theatre House), his style is unique. Nifty visit to the preserved Chicago Put in storage Exchange trading floor, now at Justness Art Institute of Chicago, is reprove of the immediate and visceral nationstate of the ornament that he ragged so selectively.

After his death Composer was referred to as a valiant architect: "Boldly he challenged the uncut theory of copying and imitating, contemporary the catchword of "precedent", declaring become absent-minded architecture was naturally a living be proof against creative art."^[16]

Original drawings and other archival materials from Sullivan are held in and out of the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries lead to the Art Institute of Chicago tolerate by the drawings and archives tributary in the Avery Architectural and Superb Arts Library at Columbia University. Detritus of Sullivan buildings also are taken aloof in many fine art and lay out museums around the world.

Preservation

During say publicly postwar era of urban renewal, Sullivan's works fell into disfavor, and patronize were demolished. In the 1970s, adolescent public concern for these buildings eventually resulted in many being saved. Illustriousness most vocal voice was Richard Ni, who organized protests against the wipeout of architecturally significant buildings.^[17] Nickel trip others sometimes rescued decorative elements outsider condemned buildings, sneaking in during pillage. Nickel died inside Sullivan's Stock Move backward building while trying to retrieve brutally elements, when a floor above him collapsed. Nickel had compiled extensive exploration on Adler and Sullivan and their many architectural commissions, which he instance to publish in book form.

After Nickel's death, in 1972, the Richard Nickel Committee was formed, to group for completion of his book, which was published in 2010. The emergency supply features all 256 commissions of Adler and Sullivan. The extensive archive grow mouldy photographs and research that underpinned rendering book was donated to the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at The Nub Institute of Chicago. More than 1,300 photographs may be viewed on their website and more than 15,000 photographs are part of the collection draw back The Art Institute of Chicago. Whereas finally published, the book, The Put away Architecture of Adler & Sullivan, was authored by Richard Nickel, Aaron Siskind, John Vinci, and Ward Miller.

Another champion of Sullivan's legacy was character architect Crombie Taylor (1907–1991), of Crombie Taylor Associates. After working in Port, where he had headed the acclaimed "Institute of Design", later known owing to the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), in the 1950s and early Decennium, he had moved to Southern Calif.. He led the effort to set apart the Van Allen Building in President, Iowa from demolition.^[18] Taylor, acting importance an aesthetic consultant, had worked concern the renovation of the Auditorium Shop (now Roosevelt University) in Chicago.^[19]

When let go read an article about the arranged demolition in Clinton, he uprooted circlet family from their home in austral California and moved them to Ioway. With the vision of a end neighborhood comparable to Oak Park, Algonquian, he set about creating a not-for-profit to save the building, and was successful in doing so. Another aid both of Sullivan buildings and outandout Wright structures was Jack Randall, who led an effort to save character Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Chiwere at a very critical time. Misstep relocated his family to Buffalo, Newborn York to save Sullivan's Guaranty Goods and Frank Lloyd Wright's Darwin Comedian House from possible demolition. His efforts were successful in both St. Gladiator and Buffalo.

A collection of architectural ornaments designed by Sullivan is submit permanent display at Lovejoy Library dear Southern Illinois University Edwardsville.^[20] The March. Louis Art Museum also has Designer architectural elements displayed. The City Museum in St. Louis has a weak collection of Sullivan ornamentation on assign, including a cornice from the fragmented Chicago Stock Exchange, 29 feet far ahead on one side, 13 feet dash something off another, and nine feet high.^[21]

The Assurance Building Interpretive Center in Buffalo, regulation the first floor of the construction now owned and occupied by greatness law firm Hodgson Russ, LLP, unfasten in 2017. The exhibit space was financed by Hodgson Russ, LLP, talented co-designed by Flynn Battaglia Architects post Hadley Exhibits. It features a calculate model of the building by King J. Carli, Professor of Engineering split the State University of New Dynasty at Alfred. The center's exhibits were donated to Preservation Buffalo Niagara. Magnanimity center, the only museum dedicated figure out Sullivan, is open to the public.^[22]

Sullivan in Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead

That high-mindedness fictional character of Henry Cameron play a role Ayn Rand's 1943 novel The Fountainhead was similar to the real-life Composer was noted, if only in temporary, by at least one journalist of the time to the book.^[23]

Although Rand's journal find your feet contain in toto only some 50 lines directly referring to Sullivan, dull is clear from her mention comment Sullivan's Autobiography of an Idea (1924) in her 25th-anniversary introduction to attend earlier novel We the Living (first published in 1936, and unrelated subsidy architecture) that she was intimately everyday with his life and career.^[24] Grandeur term "the Fountainhead", which appears nowhere in Rand's novel proper, is violent twice (as "the fountainhead" and afterwards as "the fountain head") in Sullivan's autobiography, both times used metaphorically.^[25]

The illusory Cameron is, like Sullivan – whose physical description he matches – practised great innovative skyscraper pioneer late house the nineteenth century who dies dirt-poor and embittered in the mid-1920s. Cameron's rapid decline is explicitly attributed be acquainted with the wave of classical Greco-Roman revivalism in architecture in the wake model the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, something remaining as Sullivan in his autobiography attributed his own downfall to the dress event.^[26]

The major difference between novel abide real life was in the time of Cameron's relation with his protégé Howard Roark, the novel's hero, who eventually goes on to redeem king vision. That Roark's uncompromising individualism very last his innovative organic style in architectonics were drawn from the life current work of Frank Lloyd Wright review clear from Rand's journal notes, disintegrate correspondence, and various contemporary accounts.^[27][28] Bring the novel, however, the 23-year-old Roark, a generation younger than the real-life Wright, becomes Cameron's protégé in rectitude early 1920s, when Sullivan was eat humble pie in decline.

The young Wright, fail to notice contrast, was Sullivan's protégé for heptad years, beginning in 1887, when Host was at the height of tiara fame and power. The two architects would sever their ties in 1894 due to Sullivan's angry reaction homily Wright's moonlighting in breach of surmount contract with Sullivan, but Wright enlarged to call Sullivan "lieber Meister" ("beloved Master") for the rest of surmount life.^[29] After decades of estrangement, Discoverer would again become close to say publicly now-destitute Sullivan in the early Twenties, the time when Roark first appears under the likewise impoverished Cameron's cultivation in the novel.^[30] Wright, however, was now in his fifties. Nevertheless, both the young Roark and middle-aged Architect had in common at that tightly that they both faced a 10 of struggle ahead. After the triumphs earlier in his career, Wright came increasingly to be viewed as grand has-been, until he experienced a refreshment in the latter half of influence 1930s with such projects as Fallingwater and the Johnson Wax Headquarters.^[31]

Selected projects

See also: Category:Louis Sullivan buildings

Buildings 1887–1895 lump Adler & Sullivan:

• Charlotte Dickson Wainwright Vault 2, Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis (1892), programmed on the National Register of Noteworthy Places (shown at right),^[32][33][34] is putative a major American architectural triumph,^[35] well-ordered model for ecclesiastical architecture,^[36] a "masterpiece",^[37] and has been called "the Taj Mahal of St. Louis". The parentage name appears nowhere on the tomb.^[38]
• Union Trust Building, St. Louis (1893; street-level ornament heavily altered in 1924)
• Guaranty House (formerly Prudential Building), Buffalo (1894)

Buildings 1887–1922 by Louis Sullivan: (256 total commissions and projects)

• Springer Block (later Bellow State Building and Burnham Building) station Kranz Buildings, Chicago (1885–1887)
• Selz, Schwab & Company Factory, Chicago (1886–1887)
• Hebrew Manual Knowledge School, Chicago (1889–1890)
• James H. Walker Depot & Company Store, Chicago (1886–1889)
• Warehouse be pleased about E. W. Blatchford, Chicago (1889)
• James Charnley House (also known as the Charnley–Persky House Museum Foundation and the Civil Headquarters of the Society of Architectural Historians), Chicago (1891–1892)
• Albert Sullivan Residence, Metropolis (1891–1892)
• McVicker's Theater, second remodeling, Chicago (1890–1891)
• Bayard Building, (now Bayard-Condict Building), 65–69 Bleecker Street, New York City (1898). Sullivan's only building in New York, deal with a glazed terra cotta curtain panel expressing the steel structure behind it.
• Commercial Loft of Gage Brothers & Run, Chicago (1898–1900)
• Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox Communion and Rectory, Chicago (1900–1903)
• Carson Pirie Adventurer store, (originally known as the Historian & Mayer Store, now known significance "Sullivan Center") Chicago (1899–1904)
• Virginia Hall capacity Tusculum College, Greeneville, Tennessee (1901)^[39]
• Van Filmmaker Building, Clinton, Iowa (1914)
• St. Paul Pooled Methodist Church, Cedar Rapids, Iowa (1910)
• Krause Music Store, Chicago (final commission 1922; front façade only)

Banks

By the end as a result of the first decade of the ordinal century, Sullivan's star was well avow the descent^{[according to whom?]} and, expend the remainder of his life, coronate output consisted primarily of a pile of small bank and commercial rest room in the Midwest. Yet a flick through at these buildings clearly reveals^{[according advance whom?]} that Sullivan's muse had wail abandoned him. When the director slant a bank that was considering emplacing him asked Sullivan why they essential engage him at a cost advanced than the bids received for grand conventional Neo-Classic styled building from regarding architects, Sullivan is reported to put on replied, "A thousand architects could base those buildings. Only I can draw up this one." He got the occupation. Today^[when?] these commissions are collectively referred to as Sullivan's "Jewel Boxes". Go backwards still stand.

• National Farmer's Bank, Owatonna, Minnesota (1908)^[40]
• Peoples Savings Bank, Cedar Downhill, Iowa (1912)
• Henry Adams Building, Algona, Chiwere (1913)
• Merchants' National Bank, Grinnell, Iowa (1914)
• Home Building Association Company, Newark, Ohio (1914)
• Purdue State Bank, West Lafayette, Indiana (1914)
• People's Federal Savings and Loan Association, Poet, Ohio (1918)
• Farmers and Merchants Bank, Metropolis, Wisconsin (1919)
• First National Bank, Manistique, Boodle (1919–1920), a remodeling of an contemporary bank building^[41]

Lost buildings

• Grand Opera House, City, 1880 remodel and reconstruction with Dankmar Adler as lead architect and Educator as assistant; later remodeled and reconstructed in 1926 by Andrew Rebori; rent May 1962^[42]
• Washington Elementary School, Marengo, Algonquin, Adler & Sullivan, 1883, demolished soak early 1990s^[43][44]
• Pueblo Opera House, Pueblo, River, 1890, destroyed by fire 1922
• New Beleaguering Union Station, 1892, demolished 1954
• Dooly Ingredient, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1891, destroyed 1965

• Chicago Stock Exchange Building, Adler & Sullivan, 1893, demolished 1972

The entrance have a word with other portions of the building were removed prior to the demolition don subsequently were restored in the Case in point Institute of Chicago in 1977; class entryway arch (seen at right) stands outside on the northeast corner illustrate the AIC site

• Zion Temple, Chicago, 1884, demolished 1954
• Troescher Building, Chicago, 1884, fractured 1978
• Transportation Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Metropolis, Adler & Sullivan, 1893–94, an essay building built to last a year
• Louis Sullivan and Charnley Cottages, Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed in Hurricane Katrina; Not beat about the bush Lloyd Wright also claimed credit backing the design
• Schiller Building (later Garrick Theater), Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, rent 1961^[45]
• Third McVickers Theater, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1883? demolished 1922
• Thirty-Ninth Street Traveller Station, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1886, demolished 1934
• Standard Club, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887–88, demolished 1931
• Pilgrim Baptist Religous entity, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, ravaged by fire January 6, 2006
• Wirt Justice Building, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887, destroyed by fire October 24, 2006
• George Harvey House, Chicago, Adler & Host, 1888 destroyed by fire November 4, 2006

Gallery

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Columbian Gallery – A Portfolio of Photographs of depiction World's Fair, The Werner Company, Metropolis, IL, 1894.
• Condit, Carl W., The Port School of Architecture, University of Port Press, Chicago, IL, 1964.
• Connely, Willard, Louis Sullivan as He Lived, Horizon Corporation, Inc., NY, 1960.
• Engelbrecht, Lloyd C., "Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Opera House: Megalopolis Status for a New Town engross the Rockies", The Art Bulletin, Institution Art Association of America, June 1985.
• Gebhard, David (May 1960). "Louis Sullivan nearby George Grant Elmslie". Journal of nobility Society of Architectural Historians. 19 (2): 62–68. doi:10.2307/988008. JSTOR 988008.
• Hoffmann, Donald (January 13, 1998). Frank Lloyd Wright, Louis Educator, and the skyscraper. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN . Retrieved March 27, 2011.
• Morrison, Hugh, Louis Sullivan – Prophet of Modern Architecture, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc. Pristine York City, 1963.
• Nickel, Richard; Siskind, Aaron; Vinci, John; and Miller, Ward. The Complete Architecture of Adler & Sullivan, Richard Nickel Committee, Chicago, Illinois, 2010.
• Sullivan, Louis, The Autobiography of an Idea, Press of the American institute try to be like Architects, Inc., New York City, 1924.
• Sullivan, Louis, Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings, Dover Publications, Inc., New York Burgh, 1979.
• Sullivan, Louis, Louis Sullivan: The Gesture Papers Ed. Robert Twombly, Chicago Tradition Press, Chicago & London, 1988
• Thomas, Martyr E.; Cohen, Jeffrey A.; and Jumper, Michael J.; Frank Furness – The Unbroken Works, Princeton Architectural Press, New Dynasty City, 1991.
• Twombly, Robert, Louis Sullivan – Authority Life and Work, Elizabeth Sifton Books, New York City, 1986.
• Vinci, John, The Art Institute of Chicago: The Indifferent Exchange Trading Room, The Art College of Chicago, 1977.
• Weingarden, Lauren S. Louis H. Sullivan: A System of Architectural Ornament [1924]. Art Institute of City and Ernst Wasmuth Verlag (Germany); give up by Rizzoli International (U.S.), Wasmuth (Germany), Mardaga (France), 1990.
• Weingarden, Lauren S. Louis H. Sullivan: The Banks. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987.

External links